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реферирован economist guide: 3 lessons karl marx teaches us karl marx is often associated with such ideas as socialism and communism. it is surprising that so few are familiar with his actual philosophies and theories. marx’s best known works are “capital: a critique of political economy,” more commonly referred to as “das kapital,” and “the communist manifesto,” co authored with his lifelong friend friedrich engels. he was, without question, one of the most important and revolutionary thinkers of his time. “capital,” published in 1867, was by far the more academic work, laying forth marx’s theories on commodities, labor markets, the division of labor and a basic understanding of the rate of return to owners of capital. nearly everything marx wrote was viewed through the lens of the common laborer. from marx comes the idea that capitalist profits are possible because value is “stolen” from the working class and transferred to the employers. marxist ideas have very few direct adherents in contemporary times; indeed, very few western thinkers embraced marxism after 1898, when economist eugen von böhm bawerk’s “karl marx and the close of his system” was first translated into english. in his damning rebuke, böhm bawerk shows that karl marx fails to incorporate capital markets or subjective values in his analysis, nullifying most of marx’s more pronounced conclusions. still, there are some lessons that even modern economic thinkers can learn from marx, including the following. capitalism is the most productive economic system. though he was its harshest critic, marx understood the capitalist system was far more productive than previous economic systems. in “capital,” he wrote of “capitalist production” that combined “together of various processes into a social whole,” which included developing new technologies. he believed all countries should become capitalist and develop that productive capacity, and then workers would naturally revolt into communism. you do not have to believe in marx’s final conclusions to understand he is exactly correct: capitalism is the most productive economic system in world history. according to a 2003 report from the federal reserve bank of minneapolis, per capita income and productivity around the world never grew faster than populations until the late 18th century, when britain first adopted pro free market policies. the labor theory of value cannot explain profits. like all of the classical economists, karl marx believed in the labor theory of value to explain market prices. this theory stated that the value of a produced economic good can be measured objectively by the average number of labor hours required to produce it. in other words, if a table takes twice as long to make as a chair, then the table should be considered twice as valuable. marx understood the labor theory better than his predecessors and contemporaries, even adam smith, and presented a devastating intellectual challenge to laissez faire economists in “capital;” if goods and services tend to be sold at their true objective labor values as measured in labor hours, how do any capitalists enjoy profits,
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the taiga, w ans forest in russian, is the world s largest biome. sts of coniferous forests and covers a large part of russia, scandinavia, and north america. the taiga has a subarctic climate with large differences in temperature between seasons. winters are long and very cold with only snowfall, and temperatures can drop as low as 54°c. summers are very short but warm and humid; sometimes temperatures reach 30°c. the trees of the taiga have adapted to the low levels of sunlight and the extreme conditions. most of them are evergreen trees which means they keep their leaves all year round. the leaves are also a very dark green colour so that they can absorb more sunlight for photosynthesis. the cone shape of the evergreens helps snow slide off of them so the branches don t break from the weight of the snow. the environment of the taiga encourages healthy tree growth and some of the trees there are thousands of years old. the taiga also hosts a wide variety of wildlife. it is home to russia s largest populations of brown bear, wolf, moose, reindeer, and red fox. it also has as many as 300 species of birds including the golden eagle and the great grey owl. the taiga, however, is in danger because of global warming and an increase in deforestation over the past decades. fortunately, governments are now taking measures to protect this precious natural habitat. check these words biome, coniferous, subarctic dimate, drop, humid, reach, adapt, level, absorb, photosynthesis, cone, slide, encourage, growth, host, moose, increase, deforestation, decade, take measures
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